Forensic Dentistry

Forensic Dentistry
            To further my studies in body examination, not can we use insects to identify a body, we can also use teeth from corpses or human remains. This reliable source of forensics is used during a mass tragedy such as burned bodies or just plain destroyed. According to Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, "teeth are the most enduring part of the human body, apart from bone" (1). In fact, teeth last longer than anything else in our body after death, even after embalming the body. Everyone is born with the same number and type of teeth, but each tooth has its individual unique trace. If a victim or suspect is taken into custody; while teeth and or bite marks are involved in the crime scene, dental records may be called upon or then created. Forensic dentistry has been used in many historical cases to identify criminals.

Back in The Day

            Forensic dentistry; or the use of teeth for identification, was used in the first century A.D..  It was then again used in England and even in Paul Revere's life. According to the research of the Lerners:

The Roman Emperor Claudius had his mistress, Lollia Paulina, beheaded and then demanded to examine the teeth on the body to ensure the right woman had been put to death. He knew she had a discolored front tooth. In another early example of dental identification, William the Conqueror, King of England in the eleventh century, would bite into wax used to seal official documents. His teeth were misaligned, so his bite mark guaranteed the documents' authenticity. In 1775, Paul Revere, famous for alerting American colonists to the approach of British forces, made a set of dentures for a friend, Dr. Joseph Warren, who was killed at the Battle of Bunker Hill that year. Warren was buried in a mass grave, but his family wanted the body for a private burial. Revere was able to identify Warren's body through the dentures he had made (1).

It actually works, forensic dentistry is a reliable source of identification and has been used for centuries. Dental records can show the unique trace of one's teeth and any operations that has been performed, for example, if one were to have dentures inserted, that would be displayed and easily used in court to identify a person. Now for the United States and recent uses.

United States and Early Forensic Dentistry

            In the 1800's, there were two major dates for forensic dentistry and they were 1849 and 1878, for the first dental presentation in court and use of dental records, respectively. According to the Lerner's:

In United States courts, dental evidence was first presented in court in 1849 when the incinerated remains of a George Parkman were identified by Nathan Cooley Keep through a partial denture he had made for this patient. He proved identity by fitting the prosthesis onto the cast that had been used in its manufacture. The evidence led to the conviction and execution of a J.W. Webster for the murder (1).

Then in 1878, a fire occurred at the Vienna Opera House where over a hundred people burned and died. Dental remains were used to identify some of the 126 dead people (Brenda Lerner and Lee Lerner 1). This prompted for the writing of the first textbook on forensic dentistry since how influential it was on solving the identities of many.

Conclusion

            Forensic dentistry may not seem like a huge part of forensic science, but knowing who dealt the crime and to incarcerate the criminal is essential by any legal means necessary. For example, many notorious figures of our world have been identified by dental records. Adolf Hitler, John F. Kennedy's assassin, and the remains of Czar Nicholas the second have been identified by means of forensic dentistry (Brenda Lerner and Lee Lerner 1). Forensic dentistry is a wonderful addition to the arsenal of crime fighting.

Works Cited

"Odontology, historical cases." World of Forensic Science. Ed. K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Science In Context. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.

Forensic Toxicology

Forensic Toxicology

            In forensic science, there is a specific specialty to analyze and identify the use of toxins or drugs in a victim's body or anywhere at a crime scene, and with this, we can supply the investigators with more information about the case.  Forensic scientists studying toxicology can analyze various types of samples that can be used while considering the context of a crime scene. Knowing the crime scene and what happened is half the battle when solving a crime. In this blog, we will analyze the various ways of samples can help solve crimes.

Types of Samples

            A forensic toxicologist is normally given preserved samples of body fluids, stomach contents, and organ parts with a report about the victims symptoms and or post-mortem data. There are more samples but this blog will be limited to just four samples.

• Urine

• Blood

• Hair

• Oral fluid

Urine can be analyzed for drug presence and is less likely to be infectious with diseases. Blood can confirm most common toxic substances that the victim was influenced by at the time. Hair can record medium to long term (up to a year) dosages of substance abuse. Oral fluid; saliva, contains concentrations of drugs used and is good for recent drug use analysis.

Information on Analysis

            To analyze any sample, the scientists use analytical chemistry techniques to detect and identify foreign chemicals in the body. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth state, "Toxins can be simple metal ions or more complex, inorganic and organic chemicals, as well as compounds derived from bacteria or fungi and animal-produced substances such as venoms" (1). The three categories that forensic toxicologists study are:

Identification of drugs such as heroin, cocaine, cannabis; detection of drugs and poisons in body fluids, tissues, and organs; and measuring of alcohol in blood or urine samples.   Results of the laboratory procedures must then be interpreted and are often used as           evidence in legal cases (Lerner and Wilmoth 1).

Forensic toxicologists begin analysis by screening tests, processing any sample for toxins. There are four different types of screening tests used. According to Lerner and Wilmoth:

Firstly, physical aspects of a substance such as boiling point, melting point, density, and refractive index can be determined. Secondly, the substance can be crystallized, which can give a wealth of structural information. Thirdly, chemical spot testing can be done.     Here, a substance is treated with a chemical reagent to produce crystals. Fourthly, thin     layer or gas chromatography can be used to separate individual chemical components of a mixture (1).

With the screening tests, the toxicologists can analyze the samples and conclude on whether the presence of drugs were found in the sample and or victim.

Examples of Toxins in Cases

According to Rafael Banon:

1.--Cases of mistreated children or elderly people:

The detection of urine stains on sheets, blankets or mattresses, together with determining the toxic substances present, could be of great usefulness. The same may be said of such detection on nappies, sanitary towels or other hygienic materials.

2.--In "drug facilitated sexual assault" (DFSA), following the discovery of the scene of   the crime, the detection of a drug in urine stains found could provide all-important     evidence of a crime. Traces could be found on surfaces such as sheets or vehicle seats, among others. Finding them on these surfaces is of great importance due to the short average lifespan of the toxic substances that are usually employed. [...]

5.--Finally, in other cases of sexual aggression with development of paraphilia behaviour--such as urophilia or undinism--the non-detection of toxic substances in the urine stains found on the victim, would be of great value. [...] This could also apply in other crimes such as robbery, burglary, etc. to stains found at the scene of the crime(1).

Conclusion

            In the forensic science of toxicology, the simple analysis of drug presence can mean the context of a crime scene or a criminal. Nowadays with education, criminals are increasing their intelligence and becoming more careful. Thus the need for every forensic science, as every small piece of evidence could mean the life of a case.

Works Cited

Banon, Rafael, et al. "A crossroad between criminalistics and forensic toxicology." The Internet Journal of Forensic Science 14 Dec. 2009. Science In Context. Web. 6 Mar. 2013.

"Toxicology." World of Forensic Science. Ed. K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Science In Context. Web. 6 Mar. 2013.

Forensic Entomology

Forensic Science and Insects

            Today, I was struggling to find a forensic topic to blog about but finally I found this one very intriguing and it is called Forensic entomology. According to my online source: "entomology is the study of insects and their life cycles" (Lerner and Wilmoth 1). So with the help of insects, the forensic scientists can estimate, not completely accurate, but approximate the time frame of when a victim has been killed. The insects can also shed light upon the nature of injuries, whether it has been post-mortem ante-mortem. Forensic scientists can also determine if the body was moved and if drugs were involved (Lerner and Wilmoth 1). The blog today will not factor in exposure of any weather.

Timeline of Corpses

            When a corpse is discovered and the police and crime scene investigators are called in, the forensic scientists must determine the time of death or give an estimate. Some key indicators of the time of death are the types of insects on the corpse. Lerner and Wilmoth describe the process by:

A newly deceased corpse attracts flies. Within minutes of a death, blowflies will start to lay their eggs in moist areas such as the nose, mouth, armpit, groin, or open wounds. The eggs hatch into larvae or maggots within 24 hours and these grow to around half an inch in length after about three days. Then, over the next six to ten days, they will develop into pupae with a hard outer case. Adult flies emerge about twelve days after this. If the corpse is not recovered by this time, the life cycle repeats itself so that flies at all different stages of development may be recovered from the corpse (1).

The insects aren't completely accurate but the insect's life cycle can be seen described as a kind of clock (Lerner and Wilmoth 1). If eggs are discovered on the corpse, it suggests that the victim died within 24 hours. Lerner and Wilmoth state:

The presence of maggots indicates the death occurred less than ten days ago. Pupae and mature flies will suggest a time of death one to three weeks before discovery of the corpse. However, the life cycle of flies is not an accurate clock. Flies are cold-blooded and their activities are dictated by the weather. Maggots may become dormant if it is cold and flies do not lay eggs at night. If someone is killed at midnight, flies will not appear till daylight, which means time must be added to the estimated time of death (1).

With the growing insects on the corpses, forensic scientists have discovered a pattern to discoverer and better estimate the times of death of each victim.

Conclusion

            Insects bring another type of forensics to the police force and help determine time of death and location of death with analysis on the types of insects. The insects on the body can determine whether the body was moved. Sometimes insects on the body are not native to the area which portray a move in location. With the addition of forensic entomology, it makes it easier for the police force to fight crime and bring justice to the ones who wrong others.

Works Cited

"Entomology." World of Forensic Science. Ed. K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Science In Context. Web. 27 Feb. 2013.

Computer Forensic Science

Computer Forensic Science

            I have been researching forensic science since our first day of blogging and I've never realized forensic science and it's uses in the cyber world. It is in any way or form of criminal activity on the internet for example but not limited to, hacking or phishing. According to Kharb, Rai, and Tomar:

Computer forensic is a science of acquiring, preserving, retrieving and presenting data that has been processed electronically and stored on computer media and according to Department Of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI),computer forensic includes formalized and approved methodology to collect, analyze and present data in a court of law [2].

Unlike the other forensic specialties I have blogged about, these computer forensic scientists unfortunately don't get outside on the field often. So the forensic scientists can actually use the data they analyze for not just criminal justice, but also civil proceedings such as lawsuits in court.

Why Computer Forensic Science?
            It's simple, there are threats online just as there are in real life. They might not be as life threatening as a murderer ending one's life, but it is life threatening in a sense that one can steal your identity or all of your financial savings. Kharb, Rai, and Tomar emphasize the use stating:

Computer forensic is needed due to the complex nature of electronic media. Traditional forensic science technique will not work in recovering and compiling computer based evidence. There is tremendous amount of fraud being committed using computers. Everyday thousands of computer users are bombarded with tons of bogus email. There is always someone on the internet typing to find a new victim to commit a crime against. There are fake websites, phony on line auctions, credit card fraud and a host of other crimes. The percentage of fraud is going up and people are losing thousands of dollars to cyber thieves.

Huge companies put their stock data or sensitive information like payroll and new project plans up on computers. Although these companies may have the best network security, there are people who are willing to work day and night to break through that security to steal this sensitive information (Kharb, Rai, and Tomar 1). We need the use of computer forensics to stop these criminal events of theft, blackmail, and so on to save the "cyber society".

Techniques of Computer Forensic Science

            The few forensic techniques that I want to talk about are over emails, internet, and password cracking. Company used computers or networks can be analyzed for data sent and received for misconduct of the companies' policies (Kharb, Rai, and Tomar 1). Computer forensics can also find data that has been dumped from the computer memory in past work sessions. With the internet, not everything online is secure or completely private and can be easily obtained. Kharb, Rai, and Tomar state:

Even after data has been deleted, much information remains available for discovery of the Windows swap file. Windows swap files are dynamically created during the web session & then erased. These same files are then left behind as a large erased file in unallocated spaces. Unless specifically defragmented and written over, these erased swap files can be retrieved and archived for analysis.

The last technique is password cracking and computer forensic scientists use programs to decipher encrypted code and create numerous possible passwords to penetrate files.

Conclusion

            There are many different types of crimes in the world and with our world evolving and technology always growing, comes the growth of cyber crimes. Thus the need for Computer forensic scientists to keep order within the "cyber world".

Works Cited

Kharb, Latika, Balwant Rai, and Pradeep Tomar. "New vision of computer forensic science: need of cyber crime law." The Internet Journal of Law, Healthcare and Ethics 3 May 2007. Science In Context. Web. 26 Feb. 2013.